Key Points Summarised
- Happiness as the Goal: For Aristotle, happiness (eudaimonia) is the ultimate goal of human action, pursued for its own sake. It is not a fleeting pleasure but is achieved through a virtuous and rational way of living.
- Virtue as the Mean: According to Aristotle, virtues are defined as a „mean“ between extremes (e.g., courage lies between recklessness and cowardice). They are dispositions developed through practice and guided by reason.
- External Goods as Instruments: For Aristotle, external goods such as health, appearance, or heritage are helpful but not essential for happiness. They are means to an end rather than the ultimate purpose of human striving.
Inhalt
Who Was Aristotle?
Aristotle (384–322 BCE) was a prominent Greek philosopher, scientist, and student of Plato. Born in Stagira, a city in Chalkidiki, he joined Plato’s Academy in Athens at the age of around 17, where he studied and taught for over 20 years. After Plato’s death, Aristotle established his own philosophical school in Assos and later became the tutor of Alexander the Great in 343 BCE. In 335 BCE, he founded the Lyceum in Athens.
Aristotle’s work spans a wide range of topics, including logic, ethics, politics, natural sciences, and metaphysics. His systematic approach to knowledge, based on observation and analysis, was groundbreaking. Influential writings like the Nicomachean Ethics and Politics continue to shape ethical and political thought today.
Following the death of Alexander in 323 BCE, Aristotle faced political persecution and fled Athens. He passed away in 322 BCE in Chalkis. Despite many of his works being lost or surviving only in fragments, his contributions have profoundly shaped Western philosophy and science.
Overview of Aristotle’s Concept of Happiness
Aristotle places happiness (eudaimonia, εὐδαιμονία) at the core of his ethical philosophy. He explicitly distinguishes it from fleeting moments of pleasure or subjective well-being. Instead, happiness is the highest good and the ultimate goal of human life. It is sought for its own sake and not as a means to achieve something else, such as health or success. Hence, Aristotle’s theory of happiness is often described as teleological (derived from telos, meaning „goal“ or „purpose“).
Happiness, in Aristotle’s view, is an activity of the soul in accordance with virtue (areté). He sees this as the unique function (ergon) of human beings. Virtues, for Aristotle, represent a balance between extremes (the „doctrine of the mean“). For example, courage is a virtue that lies between the vices of recklessness and cowardice. Developing virtues requires consistent practice and effort. Thus, happiness, for Aristotle, is not a passive gift of fate but an active, practical endeavour.
In contrast to many modern theories of happiness, Aristotle’s approach is normative and teleological. It is universal and objective rather than relative to a specific culture or era.
Aristotle on Happiness: A Detailed Overview
Happiness: The Supreme Good
Aristotle defines happiness (eudaimonia) as the supreme good – the highest aim of human life that is pursued for its own sake, not as a means to any other end. Unlike fleeting pleasures or subjective feelings, happiness for Aristotle represents a state of flourishing achieved through living virtuously. His ethical framework is teleological, meaning it is goal-oriented, centred on achieving the ultimate purpose (telos) of human life.
Aristotle elaborates:
“If there is some end of the things we do, which we desire for its own sake…clearly this must be the good and the chief good” (Nicomachean Ethics, 1094a).
He acknowledges that while most people agree that happiness is the ultimate aim, there is considerable disagreement about what it actually entails. The common understanding of happiness often conflates it with living well or acting virtuously, but Aristotle’s interpretation requires a deeper exploration of what it means to fulfil the uniquely human function (ergon).
The Role of Virtue
Aristotle’s concept of happiness is intrinsically tied to virtue (areté). He views virtue as the activity of the soul in accordance with reason – the defining characteristic of humans. Virtues are not innate traits but are developed through deliberate practice and effort, forming a „disposition“ to act well.
Virtues lie at the mean between two extremes – a principle known as the doctrine of the mean. For instance, courage is the virtue between recklessness (excess) and cowardice (deficiency). Aristotle writes:
“Virtue is a state of character concerned with choice, lying in a mean, i.e., the mean relative to us, this being determined by reason” (Nicomachean Ethics, 1106b).
Practical wisdom (phronesis) is essential for identifying the appropriate balance in different situations. Virtue is therefore dynamic, requiring situational judgment and continuous refinement.
The Role of External Goods
While virtue is central to Aristotle’s concept of happiness, he acknowledges that external goods – such as health, wealth, and social connections – play a supportive role. However, these are instrumental and not ends in themselves. A lack of external goods may hinder one’s ability to achieve happiness, but an overabundance can be equally problematic.
Aristotle critiques views that equate external success with happiness:
“Happiness requires external goods as well; for it is difficult, if not impossible, to act virtuously without the means to perform virtuous acts” (Nicomachean Ethics, 1099b).
However, he cautions against over-reliance on external factors, distinguishing his position from more materialistic or hedonistic philosophies.
A Lifelong Pursuit
Happiness is not achieved through a single action or moment of pleasure but is the result of a lifetime of virtuous living. Aristotle emphasises the enduring and cumulative nature of happiness:
“One swallow does not make a summer, nor does one day; and so too one day, or a short time, does not make a man blessed and happy” (Nicomachean Ethics, 1098a).
Thus, happiness is a long-term goal, dependent on sustained virtuous activity.
Summary of Key Ideas
Aristotle’s ethics position happiness as the ultimate purpose of human existence, realised through virtuous activity over a lifetime. While external goods can facilitate this pursuit, they are subordinate to the role of virtue. Aristotle’s eudaimonia is a practical and active form of happiness, distinct from passive or hedonistic notions of well-being.
Modern Influence
Aristotle’s ideas continue to shape contemporary discussions of virtue ethics and happiness. Philosophers like Alasdair MacIntyre and Martha Nussbaum have drawn on his work to address modern moral and political issues. His influence extends even into positive psychology, though some scholars argue that modern interpretations often oversimplify his nuanced views.
Sources & Inspiration
Aristotle. (1925). The Nicomachean ethics (W.D. Ross, Trans.). Oxford University Press. (A classic translation)
Shields, Christopher, „Aristotle“, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2023 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.), URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2023/entries/aristotle/>.
Are you interested in more English-language content on the philosophy of happiness? Then simply start here: Epictetus on Happiness: Stoic Wisdom for a Good Life. And here: Adiaphora in Stoicism and Its Role in Achieving Happiness.
The original German version of this article: Glück bei Aristoteles
Foto: Martens/Canva
